Glossary of Islamic Terms

Over 100 Arabic terms explained.

`Aadah: Custom, practice. A local custom which is not in conflict with the Qur'an or the Sunnah (qv.) is admissible as part of Islamic law.

`Adl: Justice, equilibrium.

Ahaadeeth: (singular: hadeeth). The verbalized form of a tradition of the Prophet, peace be on him, constitutive of his Sunnah. A hadeeth narrative is divided into two parts: the isnaad (chain of transmission) and the matn (content of the narrative).

Ahl al Bayt: Literally, people of the house. Refers to the family and relations of the noble Prophet who were Muslims.

Ahl al Dhikr: Literally, people of remembrance. Refers to true scholars whose knowledge springs from and is steeped in the remembrance of God.

Ahl al Hadeeth: Literally, people of hadeeth. Refers to scholars who rely on authenticated sayings of the Prophet and who are wary of using independent reasoning (ra'ee) in making juristic judgments. Used in contradistinction to ahl al ra'ee (qv. under ra'i).

A'immah: See imam.

Ahl al Sunnah: Literally, people of the Sunnah. Refers to the vast majority of Muslims who follow the Sunnah (qv) of the Prophet and the precedents of his rightly-guided successors. Used in contradistinction to the Shee`ah (qv.) who believed that `Alee, the Prophet's cousin and son-in-law, should have been his immediate successor. Ahl al Sunnah wa al Jamaa`ah - the community united behind the Sunnah of the Prophet.

`Aalim: (plural: `ulamaa'): One who knows, a scholar, a scientist. Commonly used for someone who has a thorough knowledge of Islam and its sources, the Qur'an and the Sunnah. An important characteristic of an `aalim, according to the Qur'an, is that he is deeply conscious of God and stands in awe of Him.

Ameer al Mu'mineen: Literally, Commander of the Believers. The title was first given to any commander of a military mission but was later used specifically for the head of the Muslim state, the khaleefah.

`Aamm, al: The `general' as opposed to the `particular' (al khaass). Terms used by jurists in the complex matter of extracting laws from statements composed as codal propositions. Islamic scholarship called `general' (al `aamm) the term which comprehends a plurality, and distinguished two varieties of it - generality in the term itself and generality in the meanings to which the term may refer.

Ansaar: Literally, Helpers. Name given collectively to the Muslims native to Madinah during the time of the Prophet who pledged to support and defend him.

`Aqeedah: Belief; the substance of a belief.

Asbaab al Nuzool: The causes or the circumstances and events surrounding a particular revelation of the Qur'an. Knowledge of the asbaab al nuzool helps provide an understanding of the original context and intent of a particular revelation. This knowledge is necessary for determining the ratio legis of a ruling and whether, for example, the meaning of the revelation is of a specific or of general application.

Asl: (plural: usool). Root, origin, source; principle.

Athar: Literally, impact, trace, vestige; deeds and precedents of the Companions of the Prophet.

Aayah: (plural: aayaat). Literally, sign, indication, message; an aspect of God's creation; a section of the Qur'anic text often referred to as a `verse.'

Basmalah: The formula - Bismillaah al Rahmaan al Raheem - In the name of God, most Gracious, most Merciful.

Baatil: Null and void.

Batineeyah: (From baatin meaning hidden or esoteric). A sect of Sufis who sought alleged esoteric meanings behind the words of the Qur'an through allegorical interpretation. They also searched for a living infallible leader and had recourse to Greek Pythagorean theories.

Bayaan: Exposition, explanation, clarification.

Bid`ah: Innovation. In contradistinction to the Sunnah. Refers to any action or belief which has no precedent in or has no continuity with the Sunnah. Any innovation introduced into the established practice of the noble Prophet, particularly relating to acts of worship, is regarded as erroneous according to his saying: "Every innovation (bid`ah) is an error (.dalaalah)."

Daleel: (plural: adillah). Proof, indication, evidence. Every ruling or judgment needs to be substantiated by the appropriate daleel in the first instance from the Qur'an and the Sunnah.

Da`wah: Invitation; call. Refers to the duty of Muslims to invite or call others to return to the straight and natural path of Islam or submission to God. This, according to the Qur'an, has to be done with wisdom and beautiful advice. The `most excellent speech' is that of a person who calls others to God. Da`wah is addressed to both Muslims and non-Muslims.

Deeyah: Compensation.

Faqeeh: (plural: fuqahaa'). Literally, one who has a deep understanding of Islam, its laws, and jurisprudence; a jurist.

Faatihah, al: Literally, the Opening. The opening chapter of the Qur'an.

Far`: (plural: furoo`). Literally, branch, subdivision. A subsidiary law; a new case (in the context of qiyaas (qv.)).

Fatwaa: (plural: fataawaa). Juridical verdict, legal opinion.

Fiqh: Literally, understanding. The legal science founded mainly on rules and principles developed by human reasoning (ijtihaad) and the body of knowledge so derived. Fiqh may therefore vary from one jurist or school of thought to another. The term "fiqh" is sometimes used synonymously with Sharee`ah (qv.). However, while fiqh is to a large extent the product of human endeavor, the Sharee`ah is closely related to divine revelation and knowledge which is only obtained from the Qur'an and the Sunnah.

Fitnah: Any affliction which may cause man to go astray and to lose his faith in spiritual values; test, trial, confusion, civil war, oppression.

Ghayb, al: That which is beyond the reach of human perception.

Ghusl: A bath performed in a prescribed manner and which is necessary to ensure purification after certain actions, for example, sexual intercourse, seminal emissions, menstruation.

Hadeeth: see ahaadeeth above.

Hadeeth Da`eef: Weak hadeeth. One of the three main categories of hadeeth in contradistinction to saheeh (authentic) and hasan (good) hadeeth. A hadeeth is weak owing to a weakness that exists in its chain of narrators or in its textual content. There are several varieties of weak hadeeth.

Hadeeth Marfoo`: Literally, an `elevated' hadeeth. Refers to a hadeeth mursal (qv.) which is consistent with the precedent of the Companions and which is `elevated' and attributed to the Prophet.

Hadeeth Mashhoor: A `well-known' hadeeth; a hadeeth which is originally reported by one, two, or more Companions from the Prophet or from another Companion, but has later become well-known and transmitted by an indefinite number of people during the first and second genera tion of Muslims.

Hadeeth Munqati`: A hadeeth with part of its isnaad missing. Also referred to as hadeeth mursal.

Hadeeth Mursal: A hadeeth which a person from the second generation of Muslims (Taabi`oon) has directly attributed to the Prophet without mentioning the last link, namely the Companion, who might have narrated it from the Prophet. More generally, a hadeeth with part of its isnaad missing.

Hadeeth Mutawaatir: Literally `continuously recurrent' hadeeth. A hadeeth is classified as mutawaatir only when it is reported by a very large number of people of proven reliability in such a way as to preclude any possibility of them all agreeing to perpetuate a falsehood. According to the majority of scholars, the authority of a mutawaatir hadeeth is equivalent to that of the Qur'an.

Hadeeth Saheeh: Authentic hadeeth. A hadeeth is classified as saheeh when its narrators are all reliable and trustworthy, when its isnaad is continuous and goes right back to the Prophet, and when the narration is free from any obvious or subtle defects.

Hawaa: (plural: ahwaa'). Vain or egotistical desire; individual passion; impulsiveness. Following one's own desires is described in the Qur'an as taking these desires as your `god' or object of worship. Following hawaa leads to arrogance and destruction and is contrasted with following the Sharee`ah which is designed to discipline and lead man to fulfillment and happiness.

Hijrah: Migration. The act of leaving a place to seek sanctuary of freedom or worship in another or for any other purpose. Also the act of leaving a bad practice in order to adopt a righteous way of life. Specifically, the hijrah refers to the Prophet's journey from Makkah to Madinah in the month of Rabee` al Awwal in the twelfth year of his mission, corresponding to June 622 AC. The Islamic calendar begins from this event (AH)

Hijree: Pertaining to the hijrah.

Heelah: Legal stratagem.

Hudaybeeyah: A plain to the west of Makkah where a truce was concluded between the Prophet and the Quraysh in 6 AH.

Hudood: (singular: hadd). Literally, limits; the specific punishments assigned by the Qur'an and the Sunnah for particular crimes - intoxication, theft, rebellion, adultery and fornication, false accusation of adultery, and apostasy. These crimes involve transgressing the limits of accep table behavior.

Hujjeeyah: Producing the necessary proof or authority to validate a rule or concept.

`Ibaarat al Nass: Explicit meaning of a given text which is borne out by its words.

Ijmaa`: Consensus of opinion. Usually defined as the unanimous agreement of the mujtahidoon of any period following the demise of the Prophet Muhammad on any matter. As such, it is described as collective ijtihaad.

Ijtihaad: Literally, striving and self-exertion; independent reasoning; analytical thought. Ijtihaad may involve the interpretation of the source materials, inference of rules from them, or giving a legal verdict or decision on any issue on which there is no specific guidance in the Qur'an and the Sunnah.

Ikhtilaaf: Difference of opinion; disagreement; dispute; controversy.

`Illah: (plural: `ilal). Effective cause or ratio legis of a particular ruling.

Imam: (plural: a'immah). Leader. May refer to the leader of congregational salaah, to a leading and reputable scholar, or to the head of the Muslim state.

Isnaad: Chain of narrators of a hadeeth.

Istihsaan: Juristic preference - the abandonment of one legal ruling for another which is considered better or more appropriate to a given circumstance.

Istinbaat: Inference. Deducing a somewhat hidden meaning from a given text. The process of extracting laws.

Istishaab: Presumption of continuity, or presuming continuation of the status quo ante. For example, istishaab requires that once a contract of sale, or of marriage, is concluded it is presumed to remain in force until there is a change established by evidence.

Jadal: Dialectics, wrangling, disputation.

Jamaa`ah: Group, congregation, community.

Jaa'iz: That which is allowed or permissible. As a rule, everything that is not prohibited is allowed.

Jihad: Literally, striving. Any earnest striving in the way of God, involving either personal effort, material resources, or arms for righteousness and against evil, wrongdoing and oppression. Where it involves armed struggle, it must be for the defense of the Muslim community or a just war to protect even non-Muslims from evil, oppression, and tyranny.

Junub: Impure. A person is considered to be in a state of impurity, for example, after sexual intercourse and seminal emissions. A person in such a state is normally required to perform ghusl (qv.) before performing acts of worship like salaah.

Kalaam: Literally, `words' or `speech,' and referring to oration. The name applied to the discipline of philosophy and theology concerned specifically with the nature of faith, determinism and freedom, and the nature of the divine attributes.

Khabar al Waahid: A solitary hadeeth reported by a single person from the Prophet. Also called hadeeth Aahaad. Khabar means news or report.

Khaleefah: (plural: khulafaa'). Steward, vicegerent; successor. Man is referred to as the khaleefah or steward of God on earth. The word khaleefah was used after the death of the noble Prophet Muhammad to refer to his successor, Aboo Bakr, as head of the Muslim community. Later it came to be accepted as the designation for the head of the Muslim state. Anglicized as caliph.

Khamar: Intoxicant: wine.

Khaass: The particular as opposed to the general (`aamm).

Khawaarij: Seceders. Name given to a group of the followers of the khaleefah `Alee who opposed his decision to agree to arbitration in the conflict with Moo`aawiyah in 38 AH/659 AC. Later on, this group recognized as legitimate only the first two caliphs. Aboo Bakr and `Umar. Theologically, they considered the sinner as a kaafir, an outlaw or apostate, whom it is legitimate and religiously imperative to fight.

Khilaaf: Controversy, dispute, discord.

Khilaafah: Stewardship, vicegerency; successorship. Office of the head of the Muslim state. Also the designation of the political system of the Muslim state after the noble Prophet.

Khutbah: Sermon, oration, or ex tempore speech.

Kufr: Ingratitude to God and manifest disbelief in Him and His religion.

Madhhab: (plural: madhaahib). Literally, way of going. School of thought.

Mandoob: Recommended.

Maslahah: (plural: masaalih). Considerations of public interest. It is generally held that the principal objective of the Sharee`ah and all its commandments is to realize the genuine maslahah or benefit of the people.

Maslahah al Mursalah, al: (plural: al masaalih al mursalah). A consideration which is proper and harmonious with the objectives of the Lawgiver; it secures a benefit or prevents a harm, but the Sharee`ah provides no indication as to its validity or otherwise. For example, the Companions decided to issue currency, to establish prisons, and to impose a tax on agricultural lands despite the fact that no textual authority could be found for these measures.

Mujtahid: (plural: Mujtahidoon). One who exercises ijtihaad (qv.).

Muqallid: (plural: Mugallidoon). One who follows or imitates another, often blindly and unquestioningly.

Murji'ah: Deferrers. Those who defer judgment of the sinner to God and the Day of Judgment.

Mushrik: (plural: mushrikoon). One who associates others in worship with God; a polytheist.

Mutashaabihaat: Allegorical. Refers to verses (aayaat) of the Qur'an which are expressed in a figurative manner in contradistinction to aayaat muhkamaat or verses which are clear in and by themselves.

Mu`tazilah: Group of rationalist thinkers who flourished from the middle of the second to the beginning of the fourth hijree century.

Naskh: Abrogation of certain parts of the Qur'anic revelation by others. The principle is mentioned in the Qur'an: "None of Our revelations do We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, but We substitute something better or similar" (2: 106).

Naasikh: (active participle). Refers to the passage which abrogates or supersedes the part which is abrogated. The abrogated passage is called mansookh (passive participle).

Nass: (plural: nusoos). Text. A clear textual ruling or injunction from the Qur'an and the Sunnah.

Qat`ee: Definitive, unequivocal; free of speculative content.

Qiyaas: Analogical deduction or reasoning. Recourse to analogy is only warranted if the solution of a new case cannot be found in the Qur'an and the Sunnah. Analogy then consists in extending a principle (asl) derived from the Qur'an and the Sunnah to the new case. Analogical deduction cannot operate independently of the nusoos.

Ra'i: Opinion, reason. Ahl al Ra'i - scholars who employ independent reasoning to the solution of new problems, in contradistinction to scholars who confine themselves mainly to hadeeth (qv. Ahl al hadeeth).

Sadd al Dharaa'i`: Literally, blocking the means. Implies blocking the means to an expected end or an evil which is likely to materialize if the means towards it is not obstructed. For example, illicit privacy between members of the opposite sex is blocked or made unlawful because [of the prohibition of adultery - ed. (missing text)].

Sahaabah: Companions of the Prophet.

Salaf: Forebears, predecessors, ancestors. Al Salaf al Saalih - the righteous forebears - refers to the early generations of Muslims including the Sahaabah and the Taabi`oon.

Shahaadah: Testimony, witness; the act of witnessing that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His prophet, servant, and messenger; the verbal content of this act; martyrdom.

Shiqaaq: Discord, schism, breach.

Shee`ah: Literally, sect or party. The term Shee`ah is short for Shee`at `Alee or Sect of `Alee. They believed that `Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, should have succeeded him after the Prophet' death.

Sunnah: Literally, a clear path or beaten track. Refers to whatever the Prophet said, did, agreed to, or condemned. The Sunnah is a source of the Sharee`ah and a legal proof next to the Qur'an. As a source of the Sharee`ah, the Sunnah may corroborate a ruling which originates in the Qur'an. Secondly, the Sunnah may consist of an explanation or clarification of the Qur'an. Thirdly, the Sunnah may also consist of rulings on which the Qur'an is silent.

Taabi`oon: Literally, followers. The generation of Muslims immediately after the Companions (.Sahaabah).

Tafseer: Commentary, exegesis of the Qur'an.

Taqleed: Uncritical adoption or imitation of a particular scholar or school of thought (madhhab).

Taqwaa: Consciousness of God.

Tawbah: Literally, returning. Repenting and seeking forgiveness for one's sins in order to return as close as possible to one's originally good and unsullied state.

Tawheed: Belief in or affirmation of the Oneness of God.

Ta'weel: Interpretation or explanation. Sometimes used synonymously with tafseer. Often used in the Qur'an in the sense of `final meaning,' `inner meaning' or `real meaning' of a happening or statement or thing as distinct from its outward appearance. Absolute knowledge or what a thing or event implies rests with God alone - "none except God knows its final meaning - ta'weel" (3: 7).

Tayammum: Symbolic ablution in place of wudoo', performed, for example, in the absence of water or in the case of illness.

`Ulamaa': (singular: `aalim). See `aalim above.

Ummah: (plural: umam). Community, nation. Specifically, the community of believers or the universal Muslim community.

`Urf: Local custom which is `recognizably' good. In the absence of anything to the contrary, derivation of the law from the common and approved mores of a people.

Usool: (singular, asl). Principles, origins. Usool al fiqh - principles of Islamic jurisprudence, philosophy of law; the methodology of deriving laws from the sources of Islam and of establishing their juristic and constitutional validity.

Waqf: (plural: awqaaf). Charitable endowment or trust set up in perpetuity.

Wudoo': Purification that must precede salaah and such acts as the reading of the Qur'an.

Zaahir: Manifest, apparent, obvious. A word or phrase is described as zaahir when it has a clear meaning. It may still however be open to interpretation.

Zakaah: The compulsory `purifying' tax on wealth which is one of the five `pillars' of Islam. The word zakaah is derived from the word meaning purification, growth, and sweetening.

Zannee: Speculative, doubtful. Refers to a text which is open to interpretation as opposed to a text which is definitive, unequivocal (qat`ee).